The influence of economic and political forces on environmental policy Assignment

The influence of economic and political forces on environmental policy development - Assignment Example s, scientists, farmers, ranchers, and climatologists agree that there is urgent need to avail enough water for the purposes of harnessing the agricultural potential of Texas. Even with the rains coming to Texas in the near future, the meteorological department warns that the process of desertification shall go on for more than a century into the future. This is a worrying trend given that Texas comes only second in agricultural production behind the state of California. There are several political and economic issues which should be addressed on this front. While this is a campaign plan, the issues are real and affect all Texans on equal measure. First of all, besides worrying about the conditions of their lawns and gardens, Texans should be aware of the fact that drought affects agriculture with far-reaching effects. The drought increases the cost of inputs of production translating to higher prices for products to the final consumer. The loss of agricultural productivity will not only affect Texans; the rest of the country will have to compensate for the slowing output through higher prices and raised taxes. Scientists have predicted that it is almost inevitable for drought conditions to manifest in Texas (Kelly, 2009). The rainfall models and history for this state and concluded that desertification is eminent. Producing over 50% of the cotton and over 30% of the wheat in the United States, Texas is an agricultural pillar that should not be left to wither. The year 2011 saw to a loss of $3.18 billion in the combined cotton, hay, wheat, sorghum, and corn. Ranchers in the same year had to transport cattle to water points, fetch water and transport it to the cattle, or lose their businesses entirely. In the livestock sector, a total loss of $2.06 billion was recorded. The agricultural sector in general lost at least $8.7 billion in 2011. These costs continue rising as the drought persists in its ravaging (Lauren & Scott, 2011). Another economic issue adversely

Iphone Marketing strategy Essay Example for Free

Iphone Marketing strategy Essay Since its launch, in 2007, and until the end of 2013, Apple sold 500 million iPhones. Its an impressive number. in 2012 alone, Apple sold 120 million iPhones, in 2013 Apple sold 160 million iPhones. Without a doubt, the iPhone has become a cult product, a must have device. Which are the secrets behind the iPhone astounding success? To understand the spectacular iPhone success, and the iPhone phenomenon, we need to start by analyzing the cellular telephone market in the years immediately before the launch of the first iPhone, And the situation inside Apple. Before the iPhone launch, infact, Apple was not a cellular telephone manufacturer, and had zero experience in cellular telephones marketing.  Its only expertise was in computer hardware, computer software, and in portable music devices (the iPod). In 2005-2006, the cellular telephone market was considered a mature and saturated market, with narrow margins, dominated by Nokia and Motorola. And by the Blackberry in the high end, especially in the business and corporate world, which were needing email writing, sending and receiving capability on their cellphone, with a suitable keyboard for texting messages. A mature and saturated market with a fiery competition, such as the cellphone market in 2005-2006, was allowing narrow margins, therefore was unanimously considered unappealing by financial and business analysts. When rumours came out, in 2005-2006, that Apple was in the process of developing a cellular telephone, financial and business analysts were at best skeptical.   To be true, the consensus among financial analysts was that the Apple cellphone would have been a terrible flop. Some of them were privately saying that they were suspecting Apple executives had gone completely mad, to enter such a saturated and non-profitable market. Very few, among the business analysts, had the more objective attitude to just wait and see.  Then, the day came, and the iPhone was launched.  But Apple began with 3 huge, terrible mistakes. We expand on them onwards. When the iPhone was launched, in June 2007, it made an impact. It impressed. The touch user interface and the sleek and beautiful design by Jonathan Ive and his team made it a masterpiece of technology and design. The iPhone was decidedly a superior product.  had a host of pluses against the competition (Nokia, Motorola, Blackberry) It was a highly innovative product, a different product from the other cellphones on the market at the time. Moreover, it was significantly larger and bulkier than the other cellular telephones in the market, when the market trend, for years, had been to have smaller and smaller cellphones: the smaller cellphone you had, the cooler you were. The Apple iPhone went decidedly against the trend. Today, in 2013, with 500 million iPhones sold, and with Apple stock market capitalization at $500 billion, it is easy to affirm that the iPhone has been a game changer. It surely has. Ultimately, today we can affirm that the appearance of the iPhone on the market caused the death of the Blackberry, and the loss by Nokia and Motorola of their previously dominant position in the cellular telephone market. The reason is simple: The iPhone is a clearly superior product. Its touch control features, and its enticing user interface, made the iPhone become a cult product. But in 2005-2006, before it came out, things were different. And the perception was different when the iPhone first came out. No-one, in 2006, would have imagined that an Apple cellphone would have sold 500 million units in 6 years.. No-one would have thought this even in June 2007, when it was launched. The first generation iPhone was launched only in the US on June 29, 2007. It was subsequently launched in three more markets UK, Germany and France 5 months later, in November 2007. In July 2008 the second generation iPhone, the iPhone 3G, was launched at the same time in the US, Canada, UK, Germany, France,Switzerland, Austria, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Mexico and Brasil. The third generation iPhone, the iPhone 3GS, was launched in June 2009. Each iPhone generation had more features that the previous generation, and had longer battery life, and rendered the previous generation iPhones obsolete. The fourth generation iPhone, the iPhone 4, was launched in June 2010. The iPhone 4S was launched in October 2011. The iPhone 5 was launched in September 2012. The iPhone 5C and 5S were launched in September 2013. Planned Obsolescence has been a conscious marketing strategy by Apple. Thus, any Apple costumers knows (or pretend not to know) that he buys a product that in 12 months will become old and obsolete. However, examining the sales data, this planned obsolescence strategy paid off for Apple, But which were the 3 serious marketing strategy mistakes that Apple made when it launched the iPhone? The 3 Mistakes that Apple made when it launched the iPhone. Mistake #1. To purchase an iPhone, you had to sign a 24 months contract with ATT. You had to marry ATT. And many potential costumers did not want this marriage. you were locked on a 24 months contract with ATT. An expensive contract. In the end, if you were wanting to buy an iPhone, its real cost was more than 2000 dollars. Why forcing your costumers to sign a contract with a service provider? And why a single provider, not giving any other choice? Why not letting your costumers simply buy an iPhone, and let them free to arrange a contract as they please? Infact, there were numerous complaints by iPhone costumers and potential costumers, on this issue. Even, a widespread hacking practice took place, significantly called jailbreak: on several websites appeared step by step instructions on how to hack the iPhone software to let it operate with a different service provider. Infact, 3.3 million iPhones were sold in the US between June andl December 2007, but only 2 million contracts were signed with ATT. Were did the remaining 1.3 million iPhones go? It has to be remarked that the iPhone jailbreak practice infurated Apple executives, who, instead of recognized their marketing strategy mistake, criminalized the jailbreaking behaviour, to the point of blackmailing costumers doing the jailbraking. Mistake #2. On June 29, 2007 the iPhone was launched in the US. It was put on sale only in the US, and in no other nation in the world. Only in November 2007, 5 months later, the iPhone was launched in a few other countries. To be precise, it was launched in just 3 other countries: UK, Germany and France. In each of these countries with the same silly formula that Apple used in the US, forcing the costumer to sign a 24 months contract with a service provider. and in each country with a different provider: O2 in the UK, T-Mobile in Germany, Orange in France. This was a bad marketing choice by Apple.  There were millions of potential costumers all around the world who were wanting to buy an iPhone, but couldnt, because in their own country it was not on sale.  Many of them went to such length to ask to their friends in the US or traveling to the US to buy one for them. Finally, only on July 11, 2008, one full year after the initial launch in the US, the iPhone was put on sale in other countries, in Europe: Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Austria, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Netherlands, Belgium;  and in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Japan, Mexico, Brasil. It was already the 3rd generation iPhone, the iPhone 3G and 3GS. Why so late? Besides, it is interesting to verify the jam and confusion of different prices, terms and monthly fees charged by the service providers in the European countries: O2 in the UK, T-Mobile in Germany, Austria and Netherlands, Orange in France, Swisscom in Switzerland, Vodafone in Italy, Telia Sonera in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland. It was the perfect formula to confuse potential iPhone costumers and push them away. A self-hammering marketing strategy by Apple. In our opinion, this was a totally wrong marketing strategy by Apple. Infact, numbers do not lie: from July 2008 until the end of 2013, Apple sold a total of 500 million iPhones. From June 2007 until December 2007 when the iPhone was available only in US only 3.3 million iPhones had been sold. Mistake #3 iPhone Pricing. On June 29, 2007, when the iPhone was launched in the US, its retail price was.$599. Just 3 months after, Apple reduce the iPhone price to $399 a 33% rebate . This was an unelegant way to betray and exploit the iPhone early adopters Apple most faithful costumers. And infact, many of them complained with Apple. A smart and attentive company must not indulge in such serious mistakes, betraying their most faithful customer base. Apple had other 3 better options: Apple could have waited 1 year before reducing the price of the iPhone, or: Apple could have delayed the iPhone launch for 3 months, or: Apple could have set the iPhone retail price at $399, since the initial launch. Besides, in July 2008, the iPhone 3G was sold at $199, 66% less than the launch price of just one year earlier. This is not a serious pricing policy. Consideration. Each of these 3 mistakes constituted a bottleneck factor which confused costumers, and seriously hampered the iPhone sales potential in the first year and a half. However, in the following years Apple corrected and amended these mistakes, and things went smoothly and successfully for the company. Infact, from 2008 until 2013, Apple sold 500 million units. in 2012 alone, Apple sold 120 million iPhones, in 2013 Apple sold 120 million iPhones. The iPhone was also a precursor product of the iPad. The iPad, infact, has numerous features and technologies which derive from the iPhone, the main one being the touch control system and the user interface. The iPad, infact, is a sort of big brother of the iPhone. The iPhone certainly has been the key product of the spectacular growth of Apple revenues today at $156 billion in 1 year -, of Apple profits, and stock market capitalization today at $500 billion, making Apple the #1 company in Wall St. See more at: http://www.vertygoteam.com/apple/iphone_marketing_strategy.php#sthash.YDqfyvTj.dpuf

Looking At The Roles Of Media Media Essay

Looking At The Roles Of Media Media Essay Media is described today as the fourth pillar of state, the more powerful is its media for its global impact as evident from BBC, CNN and magazines like Times and Newsweek. The Western media has tremendous impact in shaping opinions, popularizing western values and their whole life style in the world. Napoleon once said, Four hostile newspapers are more to be feared than a thousand bayonets. The media, with specific reference to the collective entity of newspapers, radio, television and the Internet, play a very important role in national development. National development involves changes in a nation aimed at improving the political, economic and social lives of the people. In National development, the media particularly contributes in areas of democracy and good governance, political transparency, foreign policy and human rights. The real influence of the media in national development depends on the media itself, the societies in which it operates and the audience it reaches. None of these factors are the same everywhere, at all times, or under all conditions. The media in dictatorships, for example, are not likely to exercise the same influence as those in democratic societies. Even among similar types of government, other factors, such as technology, the target audience and the message, may influence the extent of media impact in the society. As the Fourth Estate, it provides checks and balances on the activities of the three arms of government; As agenda-setters, they influence the issues on public agenda; As gatekeepers, they decide what information gets to the public; As watchdog, they represent the interests of the people against powerful interests; And as for multipliers, they add to the combat effectiveness of military commanders. In military operations, on one hand the media is capable of building public opinion (e.g. Kargil); but it can also undermine public support by emotional coverage (e.g. Vietnam, Somalia). Information is power. Media can be used as a weapon against the enemy as a tool of propaganda, carrying out psychological operations for instigating public dissent against their government, dividing the enemy and countering enemy propaganda. If used prudently, media is indeed a Force Multiplier as it builds public opinion. In the words of Abraham Lincoln: Public opinion is everything. With it nothing can fail, without it nothing can succeed. Moreover, the more intense media coverage is on national disasters, the more relief materials and funds are made available by donors (e.g. India, Mozambique). In public health, media campaigns immensely contribute in the reduction of diseases, such as AIDS, SARS, leprosy and preventable children diseases (as demonstrated in Uganda, Thailand, India, Nepal and Brazil). Media strongly influences the direction of foreign policy (e.g. US policy on Bosnia and Somalia). In internal conflict situations, the media acts as an instrument of peace contributing to nation-building (e.g. post-Apartheid South Africa), but as potent force, in wrong hands, it is also capable of fuelling divisiveness and violence (e.g. Rwanda). How the media plays its role is a matter of critical importance. Where the media pursue the role in the face of professionalism, truth, fairness and justice, then the society immensely benefits, but where the media become selfish in pursuance of mainly profits and personal gains, then the society is at a disadvantage. For the media to play any meaningful role in national development, it must be free and independent. Free press is one of the built-in mechanisms in democracy, designed to oppose destructive and disruptive attitudes; the more the freedom of media in society, lesser the corruption. Secondly, control of the media by a few individuals, corporations or governments is inimical to the medias ability to effectively carry out their role. Thirdly, to succeed in their role, the media must be professional. Biased attitude, sensationalism, propaganda and distortions, negatively affect the contribution of the media in national development. Freedom of the media must therefore go along with responsibility. The newly unshackled Pakistani media lacks this sense of responsibility. Even the best of pro-people government policies are criticized and facts distorted for the sake of criticism. Pakistani press and electronic media are faced with shortage of professional reporting, inadequate resources, lack of investigative skills and modern technology. National Media, on the other hand, is used as a mouth piece by every sitting government. Indias go global mantra with more professional and material resources is having damaging impact on Pakistan. The perceived threat can be countered by improving the performance of our own media so that a balance could be created in the minds of the viewers. Projection of truth is essential to gain credibility so that the viewer does not feel the urge to seek it elsewhere. Moreover, the media must take cognizance of national security and the welfare of the people. Ownership of the media should be spread to avoid the monopoly of a few, powerful individuals, corporations or governments. Transmission of violent materials should be controlled to reduce negative influence on the society. The effect of media on national security decision-making is significant. There is no doubt of its influence and based on the information provided within this record, there can be no doubt of its power and effect on national security decision-making. It has emerged as a viable element of power. Modern technology has revolutionized the mass media especially the electronic media. While the improved communication and transportation systems accelerated the process of accessibility and verification of the stories for radio and press, the television made media-men sufficiently powerful to considerably influence the policy formation, campaign processes, issue developments etc. In third world countries the television enjoys much more power than in the developed countries. It has been continuously capturing attention and increasing the size of audience. Perhaps thats why it has become almost a rule in Third world countries to retain complete control over this aspect of mass media. The regional and global outreach of Pakistani media is negligible and is abysmally behind the media of our hostile neighbor, which continues to carry out its demonizing Pakistan propaganda. The Pakistani media has to face the challenged posed and take it as opportunity by revising its policies and updating its material and human resources to play a proactive role to project and promote Pakistan.

Planning a 12 week scheme of work Essay -- essays research papers

PGCE Assignment 2: Planning a 12 week scheme of work. Introduction This assignment has been designed to plan and produce a twelve week scheme of work in association with Unit 1: BTEC ND e-Media Production course. The course is designed to develop learners’ skills and knowledge in reading, analysing and deconstructing of e-media. Reece and Walker (2000) discuss, there are several building blocks to be considered when planning for effective learning. I will discuss the sections of the planning process that need to be considered planning for a lesson. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lesson content and building blocks of lesson planning. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The methodology of Teaching and learning. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The theories of learning and what influences planning. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assessment through the use of a self-evaluation pro-forma. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Motivational and Equal Opportunities issues. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Self –Evaluation. Lesson content and building blocks of lesson planning Benjamin Bloom developed an analysis of academic learning behaviours in the field of education, known as Bloom’s Taxonomy. These behaviours were categorized into three interrelated and overlapping learning domains; Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor domains. In this section I will describes in point each of these three learning domains. The Cognitive Domain The Cognitive Domain is a person’s intellectual ability. Cognitive learning behaviours are characterized by observable and unobservable skills such as comprehending information, organizing ideas, and evaluating information and actions. There are six levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning within the cognitive domain; 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Knowledge is a starting point that includes both the acquisition of information and the ability to recall information when needed. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Comprehension is the basic level of understanding. It involves the ability to know what is being communicated in order to make use of the information. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Application is the ability to use a learned skill in a new situation. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Analysis separates information into part for better understanding. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Synthesis is the ability to combine existing ele... ...es: Recommended Reading [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~assess/slo.htm] Other Sites: o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database (Taxonomy) o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bloom's Taxonomy [The Teaching and Educational Development Institute] o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bloom Resources o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.reach.ucf.edu/~acg4401/Handouts/blooms.htm o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.stedwards.edu/cte/bloomtax.htm o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.aphs.sa.edu.au/soc_env/skills/bloom.html o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://its.foxvalley.tec.wi.us/iss/curric-assessment/COLUMN.html o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www-ee.eng.hawaii.edu/~tep/EE367/Coop/bloom.html o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.utexas.edu/student/lsc/handouts/1414.html o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.cityu.edu/facultystaff/teachingtips.asp [Teaching Tips, City University (Bellevue, WA)] o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Guide to Theories of Learning o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Internet Resources for Higher Education Outcomes Assessment [http://www2.acs.ncsu.edu/UPA/assmt/resource.htm] Planning a 12 week scheme of work Essay -- essays research papers PGCE Assignment 2: Planning a 12 week scheme of work. Introduction This assignment has been designed to plan and produce a twelve week scheme of work in association with Unit 1: BTEC ND e-Media Production course. The course is designed to develop learners’ skills and knowledge in reading, analysing and deconstructing of e-media. Reece and Walker (2000) discuss, there are several building blocks to be considered when planning for effective learning. I will discuss the sections of the planning process that need to be considered planning for a lesson. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lesson content and building blocks of lesson planning. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The methodology of Teaching and learning. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The theories of learning and what influences planning. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assessment through the use of a self-evaluation pro-forma. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Motivational and Equal Opportunities issues. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Self –Evaluation. Lesson content and building blocks of lesson planning Benjamin Bloom developed an analysis of academic learning behaviours in the field of education, known as Bloom’s Taxonomy. These behaviours were categorized into three interrelated and overlapping learning domains; Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor domains. In this section I will describes in point each of these three learning domains. The Cognitive Domain The Cognitive Domain is a person’s intellectual ability. Cognitive learning behaviours are characterized by observable and unobservable skills such as comprehending information, organizing ideas, and evaluating information and actions. There are six levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning within the cognitive domain; 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Knowledge is a starting point that includes both the acquisition of information and the ability to recall information when needed. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Comprehension is the basic level of understanding. It involves the ability to know what is being communicated in order to make use of the information. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Application is the ability to use a learned skill in a new situation. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Analysis separates information into part for better understanding. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Synthesis is the ability to combine existing ele... ...es: Recommended Reading [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~assess/slo.htm] Other Sites: o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database (Taxonomy) o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bloom's Taxonomy [The Teaching and Educational Development Institute] o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bloom Resources o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.reach.ucf.edu/~acg4401/Handouts/blooms.htm o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.stedwards.edu/cte/bloomtax.htm o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.aphs.sa.edu.au/soc_env/skills/bloom.html o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://its.foxvalley.tec.wi.us/iss/curric-assessment/COLUMN.html o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www-ee.eng.hawaii.edu/~tep/EE367/Coop/bloom.html o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.utexas.edu/student/lsc/handouts/1414.html o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.cityu.edu/facultystaff/teachingtips.asp [Teaching Tips, City University (Bellevue, WA)] o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Guide to Theories of Learning o  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Internet Resources for Higher Education Outcomes Assessment [http://www2.acs.ncsu.edu/UPA/assmt/resource.htm]

Features of HRM

Human resources refers to the people that work for an organization and the capabilities of these people. The fun resource management covers (HRM) all the activities that are designed to acquire, preserve, develop and use th in an organization. The basic purpose of HRM is to make effective and efficient use of human resources of an o towards achievement of the goals and objectives of the organization. The various areas of influence of the HRM include the following. Determination of the right quality and quantity of different types of human resource assets required by th meet its current and future requirements. Determining and implementing business policies and practices that are best suited to acquire, develop, re effectively the human resources in the organization. ?Recruitment of people. Ongoing management of activities related to remuneration of people and development and maintenance organizational culture and work environment, conducive to effective and efficient working of people as groups. ?Providing support for recruitment of the required people in the organization. Providing support for decision making on increment, promotions, transfer and other similar people relate organization. Providing support for ongoing development and training of the people, in line with requirement of the or current availability of skills and capabilities. Pervasive Force: HRM is pervasive in nature. Ii is present in all enterprises. It permeates all levels of organization Action Oriented: HRM focuses attention on action rather than on record keeping, written proced problems of employees at work are solved through rational policies. Individually Oriented: It tries to help employees develop their full potential. It encourages them to gi organization. It motivates employees through a systematic process of recruitment, selection, training coupled with fare wages. People Oriented: HRM is all about at work, both as individuals and groups. It tries to put people on ass to produce good results. The resultant gains are used to reward people and motivate tem towards furthe productivity. Future Oriented: Effective HRM helps an organization meet its goals in the future by providingwell-motivated employees. Development Oriented: HRM intends to develop the full potential of employees. The reward structure is of employees. Training is offered to sharpen and improve their skills. Employees are rotated on variou gain experience and exposure. Every attempt is made to use their talents fully in the service of organizat Integrating mechanism: HRM tries to build and maintain cordial relations between people working at v organization. IN short, it tries to integrate human assets in the best possible manner in the service of an o Comprehensive function: HRM is to some extent concerned with any organizational decision wh workforce or the potential workforce. Auxiliary Service: HR department exist to assist and advise the line or operating managers to do their pe effectively. HR manager is a specialist advisor. It is a staff function. Inter-disciplinary function: HRM is a multi-disciplinary activity, utilizing knowledge and inputs drawn sociology, anthropology, economic etc. To unravel the mystery surrounding the human brain, managers and appreciate the contributions of all such â€Å"soft† disciplines Continuous function: According to Terry, HRM is not a one shot deal. It cannot be practiced only one h week. It requires a constant alertness and awareness of human relations and their importance in everyday Explain On-Job and Off Job Training. Trainings in an organization can be divided to two broad types. They are on-the-job trainings and off-the-jon-the-job trainings are given to the employees while they are conducting their regular works at the same place do not lose time while they are training or learning. After a plan is developed for what should be taught, em informed about the details. A time table should be establish with periodic evaluations to inform employees ab On-the-job training techniques include orientations, job instruction training, apprenticeships, internships, rotation and coaching. Employee training at the place of work while he or she is doing the actual job. Usually a professional trainer experienced employee) serves as the course instructor using hands-on training often supported by formalclassr Training methods are usually classified by the location of instruction. On-the-job training: With on the job training, employees receive training whilst remaining in the workplace. The main methods of one-the-job training include: *Demonstration / instruction – showing the trainee how to do the job Coaching – a more intensive method of training that involves a close working relationship between an experienced employee and the trainee *Job rotation – where the trainee is given several jobs in succession, to gain experience of a wide range of acti (e. g. a graduate management trainee might spend periods in several different departments) *Projects – employees join a project team – which gives them exposure to other parts of the busines s and allow to take part in new activities. Most successful project teams are â€Å"multi-disciplinary†. OFF-THE-JOB training. This occurs when employees are taken away from their place of work to be trained. Common methods of include: Under this method of training, the trainee is separated from the job situation and his attention is focuse material related to his future job performance. Off-the-job techniques include lectures, special study, audio or discussions, case studies, role playing, simulation, programmed instructions, and laboratory trainin techniques are too costly. This is any form of training which takes place away from the immediate wor training includes more general skills and knowledge useful for work, as well as job-specific training. rovided by specialist trainers working for National Grid or by an outside company hired to help with tr training is particularly effective for non-technical skills, as employees can use these across different areas of Off Job training methods are as follows: a)Vestibule training: In this method, actual work conditions are stimulated in a c lass room. Material, files, an that are used in actual job performance are also used in the training. b)Role playing: It is defined as a method of human interaction that involves realistic behavior in imaginary situ of training involves action, doing and practice.

One Foot in Eden Essay

It is impossible to go through life without making any. What we choose can define us, can close off a part of our life that, had we chosen differently, could have led to something completely different. Many things can influence our choices, from morals, to peers, to experience. Usually, it is our own morals and opinions that decide what we do. How we were raised, what we were taught, and what we have picked up along the way. Family plays a large part in our decisions. Many people think about what someone in their family would do when faced with a difficult decision. In One Foot in Eden, Amy weighs the pros and cons of sleeping with Holland to get pregnant. She carefully thinks about what her husband would do if he found out. This may be a bad example, as she decides to sleep with him anyways. Also, simple things that we learn in school allow us to make informative judgments. Peers also play a significant role. It is almost human nature to please others, or to fit in. Something we would not normally do, we do to make others like us. We might also refrain from acting a certain way that might prevent others from accepting us. This is why it is common that teens begin smoking, or doing some other dangerous habit, all to â€Å"be cool. † Our experiences shape many of our choices. If we know from experience that we will get a bad or painful response to an action, we avoid that action. We will also repeatedly make choices that produce a good or pleasant effect. We face many obstacles by trial and error, and if we have done something before, we know what actions elicit what responses. In conclusion, our choices, whether they are made from our experiences, our peers, or our morals, immensely affect our lives. The factors that influence our choices, be they good or bad, are directly related to the outcome of those decisions.

Microscopes and Electron Micro essays

Microscopes and Electron Micro essays There are many different types of microscopes and each of them works in different ways and are used to magnify different things. Some examples of these are light microscopes, transmission electron microscopes and scanning electron microscopes. Light microscopes, also known as a compound microscope, are the most simple. The condenser focuses light rays, which normally come from a lamp pointed at the mirror. It focuses light onto the object to be viewed. Light travels through the specimen and up to two lenses, one of which forms the image while the other greatly magnifies it so that we are able to see the detail in the specimen. An important part of how the microscope works is the fact that light travels through the specimen. For this to take place, the material must be cut very thinly. The material is then stained so that the different parts of the material are visible. A dye such as methylene blue is used because this dyes the material without killing it. Other dyes require the material to be killed first. An electron microscope is different to a light microscope. They have played an important part in our knowledge of the cell ultra structure. It shows us the fine details of the cell organelle. Electrons are used to make a magnified image of the cell. Electrons have a much shorter wavelength than light and so therefore it has a great resolving power. Instead of a lamp that was used with a light microscope to generate light an electron gun is used, which are then focused on electromagnets. Areas that are densely filled with electrons produce dark areas so we can clearly see the shape of the cells. The high-density electron beam can destroy parts of the tissue causing lighter parts on the image we see. The image produced is then seen on a screen or photographic plate. The photos of specimens produced are called electonmicrographs. Electron microscopes cannot be used to lo ...

A Summary of Aldous Huxleys Brave New World Essays

A Summary of Aldous Huxleys Brave New World Essays A Summary of Aldous Huxleys Brave New World Essay A Summary of Aldous Huxleys Brave New World Essay Essay Topic: Brave New World Through its pessimistic view f human nature, Huxley elaborates on the methods of achieving a utopia, depicting a future horror in reality. Using the artificially implanted ideas caused by hypermedia, community is achieved when everyone works for everyone else (peg. 91) in order to achieve maximum happiness for the whole society. One of the methods to achieve community is citizens practice a certain way of life that follows the rule that everyone belongs to everyone else (peg. 43), meaning it encourages citizens to have multiple sex partners, or participate in many sexual orgy in order to reach solidarity. Also, the World State believes erotic play between children and adolescents as normal and moral. Next, the social caste system is a high priority to community, since each of the five castes, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, Epsilons, conditioning is deluded into feeling as if they are part of the society and not a social outcast. With hypermedia, each caste is thought to appreciate higher classes and conform to the caste ones put in due to repetitive teachings such as, Alpha children wear gray. They work much harder than we do, because theyre so frightfully clever. Im really awfully glad Im a Beta, because I dont work so hard. (peg. 7) The last method used is World State citizens are required to attend strictly regulated, scheduled social activities, such as a solidarity service, obstacle golf and Centrifugal Bumble-puppy, in order to keep citizens occupied and docile. However, if a citizen is withdrawn from everyone else, not promiscuous enough, or does not agree to ones caste, community is not achieved. The methods reveal Huxley fears lack of morality, communism, and lack of free thinking. By encouraging citizens to participate in sexual activities and not think of fidelity, Huxley fears human will have a lack of morality and not know DOD conduct, or behavior is. Creating a caste system for the citizens to belong to show Huxley fear that a Communist dictatorship will run how your part of society. Requiring citizens to participate in social activities in order to keep one busy and not feel alone shows that Huxley fears that one will never be able to have free thinking, or to reflect on the meaning of life. The methods used for community is appalling, immoral, frightening, but in order for community to be achieve the results of identity must be assured. Identity is achieved by teaching World State citizens to inform to ones caste, in order to make one feel different, odd, or a social outcast if one feels more than the minimum of individuality. In the book, genetic engineering is Gamma, Delta, Epsilons, are purposely affected by genetic engineering, for it results in the subordination and inferiority the lower orders have against the upper classes. By pharmaceutically anesthetizing each caste specifically, each caste will passively serve the ruling order. The method of the caste system and using hypermedia is once again revisited, for identity is affected by citizens direct role. The lower orders are aught to hate flowers and books, for A love of nature keeps no factories busy. It was decided to abolish the love of nature, at any rate among lower classes, to abolish the love of nature, but not the tendency to consume transport. (peg. 23) Also, the teachings cause citizens to lack as an individual, for hypermedia teaches children that, Till at last the childs mind is these suggestions, and the sum of the suggestions is the childs mind. And not the childs mind only. The adults mind too-all his life long. The mind that Judges and desire and decides-made up of these suggestions. But all these suggestions are our suggestions Suggestions from the State. (peg. 28-29) Therefore causes citizens to be brainwashed to do their Jobs, either as menial labors, perform administrative Jobs, or work in the government, instead of standing out as an individual in ones caste. The methods used to achieve identity show Huxley fears the possibility of few leaders able to control the masses of the World, for Brave New Worlds government can make people think and look the same without defiance. The methods for community and identity are frightfully thought-provoking ideas but stability needs to be achieved in order for the World State society to be successful as a whole. Through World State citizens work, entertainment, and the consumption of soma, stability will be achieved. The methods to achieve stability has been previously discussed in community and identity, but in order for community and identity to be achieved there must be stability overall. Work is the first method to stabilizing the society, for if one works, there would not be enough time for one to think after work hours only time to dive into pleasure and fun, which leads to entertainment. For entertainment, citizens can do whatever they please as an unconscious reward, since there is no consequences only the risk of citizens to be occupied and docile in their own affairs. Lastly, the consumption of soma, a drug that entertains and raises the sensibility of the consumer, helps insure worldwide stability, since citizens believe a grammar in time saves nine. (peg. 89) With the shallow happiness given to citizens by the utopians government, Huxley fears that people will be controlled through rewards, which poses a greater threat to human freedom rather than punishment. In the west of the world, this seems to be the case, for the people who possess greater power control peoples spending, political loyalties, and even their thoughts with pleasure and distraction, such as large commercial businesses airing commercial Jingles to consumers to buy certain products, instead of consumers buying from little businesses. Also, Huxley fears drugs like tranquilizer, a drug that smooth out any inconvenient instincts of resistance, which is similar to a soma-holiday that eliminates unhappiness, for drugs can invade and take over the conscious mind and culture. All things considered, Brave New World does create the perfect utopian future for the real world, and achieves community, identity and stability. However, the sacrifices to peppiness such as human freedom and individualism to reach the society goals are the caste system, the way of life, the entertainment, the role citizens play in society and the soma for shallow happiness and to achieve the World States motto shows Huxley fears. Huxley fears communism, lack of individuality, lack of ones own control over mind, and the increase of industrialization, but all these fears are supposedly needed to make a perfect utopia? Indeed, through its pessimistic view of human nature, Huxley elaborates on the methods of achieving a utopia, depicting a future horror in reality.

Detection of Oil Spillage in the Sea Research Paper

Detection of Oil Spillage in the Sea - Research Paper Example The images were taken during the Prestige oil spill that happened in Spanish coast. Geographical Information System (GIS) database was used in the integration of the images to study the spatial distribution, slick progression and the results compared to field observations. From the results acquired, a relationship is developed between the use of radar imagery and other available options like wind data and in situ interpretations. Integration of these techniques produces efficient ways of monitoring and forecast oil spills in the oceans. Key words Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR), oil spillage, Geographical Information System (GIS), and oil slick. Introduction Oil spillage in the sea or oceans serves as a main source of water pollution and environmental degradation. Most leakages result from ships ferrying oil to various destinations across the world. Storms in the sea cause ship wreckages that lead to oil spillage. Monitoring of such incidences before extensive damage is made is essential. The case study for this project is an oil tanker, Prestige that was damaged in a storm in the coast of Spain. Though it had a capacity of 77000 tons of heavy fuel, after the damage, there was an immediate loss of 5000 tons. Over 190kms of the coast was contaminated with the oil within a period of three days. After a few days, the ship broke and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean. During the incident,3000tons were lost as spillage as other 6000tons as it sunk. Oil spread 270km along the south/south west of the cape of Finisterra. Satellite images have been provided by the European Space Agency daily since the accident occurred. The Envisat space craft and European Remote Sensing (ERS) revealed the leakage, raising an alarm in salvaging process of the sea (Palanzuela, Gonzalez, & Cuadrado 2006). The data retrieved from radar was of great use in oil spillage detection because it covers a wide area. Radar also assists in taking images at all times. This makes it useful in detecti ng and clean up operations of oil spills. The mode of technology used in the project was Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR). The images retrieved from the radar were very critical in detecting oil spills from the Prestige tanker. The images were integrated by the Geographical Information System (GIS) database that revealed further information about the spillage. The area covered by oil spill, its quantity and spatial distribution in the area within the oil spillage period was traced. Observations made in the field and the condition of wind during the incident could be retrieved. Oil Slick Detection The area affected lies in the north-west coast of Spain on Atlantic Ocean. The coast line covers the Cape of Finisterre to the mouth of Mino River. The marine biodiversity in the area is rich, with a blend of vertical water and column layers. The rich cold water provides nutrients that support pelagic and demersal fisheries. A rich mussel raft culture is also maintained. The fishing industry, mussel culture creates employment to the natives. Beaches, resorts and ecological important areas offer good grounds for national parks. The spillage that occurred became a threat to these areas. ASAR scenes retrieved through wide-swath mode by ScanSAR technique showed that the area affected was greater than 400kms. Several organizations took part in field survey. The data

Religous Profile Report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Religous Profile Report - Research Paper Example All the next Gurus worked on the teaching of Guru Nanak and developed the faith and trust of Sikhism over next four centuries and made the religious history of approximately 400 years. Fifth Guru, who was named guru Arjan complied the first holy book of Sikhism (BBC Religion). He also established the first estate â€Å"Amritser† for Sikh Community. All ten gurus devoted their lives for the establishment of the Sikh Religion due to their efforts. Sikhism is one of the fastest growing religion in the world. Belief about GOD: The concept of GOD in Sikhism is very clear. Sikh Community believes that there is only one GOD. He is the only creator of the entire Universe. Sikh community believes that GOD has not any specific gender. In addition, they believe that GOD can be accessed by everyone (BBC Religion). Equality: Equality is one the major beliefs of Sikhism. Teachers of Sikhism state that all the human beings are equal. All people have the same rights. None has any priority over other (kwintessential.co.uk). Other Beliefs: Sikhism aims to make the environment peaceful. Sikhism states that the truth is the key of all virtues. The religion encourages that truth and justice is a key for a peaceful life. The Sikhism also state that if a person wants to feel the pure feelings to GOD, then he must switch his attention from all other material things to only one GOD. That is the only way in which human achieves the maximum level of liberation. In addition, the teachings of the Guru Nanak also state that GOD does not have a gender and cannot be understood by everyone easily. Love and worship is the only way to know the real means of GOD. Sikhs believe that their own souls and hearts are the best tools to find the GOD. Sikhs believe that they can feel the real pleasure and travel on the way of liberation by avoiding certain things such as lust, anger, pride and attachment to the things in this world. The

The EU Single Market Programme and Monetary Union Essay

The EU Single Market Programme and Monetary Union - Essay Example This case has been of much interest in economics and one of the concepts that were studied is the hold-up problem. In more precise terms, the hold up problem is a term used in economics to describe a situation where two parties (such as a supplier and a manufacturer) may be able to work most efficiently by cooperating, but refrain from doing so due to concerns that they may give the other party increased bargaining power, and thereby reduce their own profits1. In the case of the European Union (EU), it was previously expected that the regional integration would be beset by problems with regards to policy formulation and implementation. The EU is composed of countries that have been in constant race towards domination in economic and military terms. Germany and France, for example, have been known to apply stringent protectionist policies with regards to their industries to ensure that their economy will be robust and competitive. If only to emphasize the point that there are conflicting interests among the EU member states, it will be mentioned that both of the world wars started in the European theatre. However, the implementation of Single Market Programme and the Monetary Union seems to defy our idea that it is inevitable that hold up problems occur in the European Union policies except in the case of UK opting out of the single currency. The Single Market Programme ... was based on the following premises: 1) the increase in the size of the market due to regional integration results to larger scale investment that would not have been profitable in member states' national markets and 2) regional integration is can lead to an increased economic growth rate and foreign direct investment2. The EU monetary union is an agreement of its member countries to share a single currency among them - the Euro. This currency is currently used by Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City are licensed to issue and use the euro3. With such diversity and differing interests of the member nations, how did such a venture succeeded in achieving its goals In the first place, how did it become possible that such an agreement was made What are the factors that held stalemates/hold up problems from occurring These questions must be answered as this paper is interested in determining if holdup problems are indeed inevitable in negotiations. Chapter 1: Benefits and Concessions The key to a successful negotiation is that all stakeholders benefit from the agreement without too many concessions. That is, the number of benefits that the stakeholder is entitled to generally determines the willingness of the stakeholder to come to terms. As Putnam puts it, 'the larger the win sets, the greater will the probability that an agreement will be reached'4. Note that number of benefits is a function of the number of concessions made. In the Single Market Programme and Monetary union, what was offered as benefits for all the member state was the increase in foreign direct investment and other improvements in the economy. Mechanisms were placed such that

Patient safety in hospitals Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Patient safety in hospitals - Research Paper Example Abbas, A. E. A., PhDN is an Assistant Professor in the Nursing Administration and Education Department, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. Bassiuni, N. A., PhDN, MSN, BScN is also an Assistant Professor in the Nursing Administration Department, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt. Baddar, F. M., PhDN, MSN, BScN is an Assistant Professor in the Nursing Administration and Education Department, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. The review of literature (ROL) conducted by the study shows that in the healthcare field there is growing realization that under the influence of several factors the culture in healthcare organizations is not conducive to patient safety. The factors involved are productivity, efficiency, and cost controls. Though a universal agreement on what constitutes a safety culture for health organizations is yet to emerge, there are clear indications of what these dimensions should be. The safety culture of an organization involves individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, and behavioural patterns of commitment towards safety management in the organization. Most of the efforts in providing an understanding safety culture have been focused on healthcare systems and patient engagement within these systems, with particular emphasis on such understanding in the Middle-East. There has been limited research into the handling of patient safety issues in terms of the perceptions of the fro nt-line healthcare providers, leaving a gap in the body of knowledge on the subject. The authors justify this study on the basis of attempting to reduce this gap in the body of knowledge. The difference in perceptions on patient safety of frontline healthcare providers in a clinical and the whether there was any association between these perceptions and the variables of job category, years of experience, and work setting were the research questions. The hypothesis was that there would be a difference in perception on patient safety between

Conclusion and Recommendation for report evaluate 3 e-business website Assignment

Conclusion and Recommendation for report evaluate 3 e-business website - Assignment Example Though, they might not be willing to make a purchase but they may have friends that find the products being sold there interesting and hence, act as potential customers. So, a person that clicks â€Å"Recommend to Friends† button indirectly becomes a sales person for the website. Unfortunately, Baskinrobins.com, maggiemoose.com and benjerry.com did not think of using any such option. This websites however, can greatly benefit from this entity not just in terms of generating online traffic, but also in increasing sales and profitability. There are some other factors on which these websites need to focus upon, following are few of them. Segmentation The segmentation of baskinrobbins.com is well managed, giving ease to client’s understandability. It can be seen that the website categorizes the demand of cakes in three categories based on special day, membership and geography. In comparison to baskinrobbin.com, the two sites, maggiemoos.com and banjerry.com lack such effect ive segmentation. There is a dire need of segmentation in these two websites based on the customer's purchase behavior across several product categories. It has been seen that benefits sought can also make use of more analytical information rather than plain descriptive demographic profiling (Bhatnagar & Ghose, 2002). Customers’ reviews On the broad canvas of e-commerce, where sellers and buyer do not really interact in tangible manner, there always comes a problem of decision making. A person may not be sure of its reliability and may hesitate in placing the order. However, this dilemma will automatically be resolved if the person is recommended of the website by some other customer who has used the product before. In e-commerce websites, customers review acts as word of mouth. If a website lacks customers review, one can lose several doubtful but potential customers. Same is the case with baskinrobbin.com, maggiemoos.com and benjerry.com. A scrap book or comment on several new or famous cakes should be provided to give an insight of products and services to eliminate doubts and boost up customers confidence. Online security When it comes to online shopping, the only threat that hinders decision of customer is financial security. In case of baskinrobbin.com, it has not only provided personal information security, but also financial security. When a customer enters his/her credit card number or bank account it is encrypted by sophisticated software program (secured socket layer technology or SSL), so any potential hacker cannot access it. On the other hand, Maggiemoos.com and benjerry.com lack security measurements. Recent security glitch has been disclosed about benjerry.com where an invoice of a lady was shown by simple Google search. Though, it only showed personal information and address, but fraudster could use this data as a starting point of their fraud scheme. Security should be provided to the fullest to retain potential customers (Woffenden, 2 010). Content It is commonly said that content is king. It is what search marketers have been harping for years, because a site rich in content is definitely more useful than a site with poor/copied content. Creating rich content provides value to readers, who may be willing to pass this nugget of knowledge to others through links on their blogs, forwarded e-mails or simply word of mouth. In maggiemoos.com, benjerry.com and

Legal System of Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Legal System of Business - Essay Example The most common ADR methods are mediation and arbitration; however several other methods are available including: negotiations through facilitation; neutral evaluation; conciliation; summary jury trial; mini trial; neutral evaluation; judicial referee; and others (Goldberg, Green, & Sanders, 1985). In this instance, preparing an ADR clause that can be used by the learning team to resolve potential disagreements among team members requires an agreement on a complete definition of an ADR clause. Perhaps the most consistent and concise definition of ADR identifies it as a "procedure for settling disputes by means other than litigation; e.g., by arbitration, mediation, or minitrials" (Law Encyclopedia, 1998). Additionally, it is important that the clause make both business and legal sense, and include components that will avoid significant procedural issues or needless parameters that restrict the resolution process. In structuring the Alternative Dispute Resolution clause specific to this assignment, the goal was to be concise keeping needless complexity out of the resolution clause, including the necessary elements that demonstrate a clear understanding of the process to be used, but avoiding statements that may encourage disputes in its utilization (Aibel & Friedman, 1996).

Patient safety in hospitals Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Patient safety in hospitals - Research Paper Example Abbas, A. E. A., PhDN is an Assistant Professor in the Nursing Administration and Education Department, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. Bassiuni, N. A., PhDN, MSN, BScN is also an Assistant Professor in the Nursing Administration Department, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt. Baddar, F. M., PhDN, MSN, BScN is an Assistant Professor in the Nursing Administration and Education Department, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. The review of literature (ROL) conducted by the study shows that in the healthcare field there is growing realization that under the influence of several factors the culture in healthcare organizations is not conducive to patient safety. The factors involved are productivity, efficiency, and cost controls. Though a universal agreement on what constitutes a safety culture for health organizations is yet to emerge, there are clear indications of what these dimensions should be. The safety culture of an organization involves individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, and behavioural patterns of commitment towards safety management in the organization. Most of the efforts in providing an understanding safety culture have been focused on healthcare systems and patient engagement within these systems, with particular emphasis on such understanding in the Middle-East. There has been limited research into the handling of patient safety issues in terms of the perceptions of the fro nt-line healthcare providers, leaving a gap in the body of knowledge on the subject. The authors justify this study on the basis of attempting to reduce this gap in the body of knowledge. The difference in perceptions on patient safety of frontline healthcare providers in a clinical and the whether there was any association between these perceptions and the variables of job category, years of experience, and work setting were the research questions. The hypothesis was that there would be a difference in perception on patient safety between

Legal System of Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Legal System of Business - Essay Example The most common ADR methods are mediation and arbitration; however several other methods are available including: negotiations through facilitation; neutral evaluation; conciliation; summary jury trial; mini trial; neutral evaluation; judicial referee; and others (Goldberg, Green, & Sanders, 1985). In this instance, preparing an ADR clause that can be used by the learning team to resolve potential disagreements among team members requires an agreement on a complete definition of an ADR clause. Perhaps the most consistent and concise definition of ADR identifies it as a "procedure for settling disputes by means other than litigation; e.g., by arbitration, mediation, or minitrials" (Law Encyclopedia, 1998). Additionally, it is important that the clause make both business and legal sense, and include components that will avoid significant procedural issues or needless parameters that restrict the resolution process. In structuring the Alternative Dispute Resolution clause specific to this assignment, the goal was to be concise keeping needless complexity out of the resolution clause, including the necessary elements that demonstrate a clear understanding of the process to be used, but avoiding statements that may encourage disputes in its utilization (Aibel & Friedman, 1996).

Management in early years Essay Example for Free

Management in early years Essay For the purpose of this work I will focus my attention on management and leadership skills, that any good early years practitioner should possess in order to organise/hold the event of parents evening. Working in partnership with parents Constructive working relationships between teachers and parents can enhance adults knowledge and understanding of children and children’s learning opportunities, and so contribute to children’s learning and wellbeing at home and in the setting. Children who see their parents working closely together with their teachers â€Å"gain a sense of continuity and of being cared for† and experience a â€Å"trusting and secure environment in which they can learn and grow† (Whalley the Pen Green Centre Team, 2001). Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model of human development offers a theoretical rationale for teachers and parents working in close collaboration. Inclusion†¦.. Purpose and outcome Early childhood practitioners are often reluctant to see themselves as leaders and managers. However, all those who work with young children and their families, whatever their level of experience and competence, have to undertake both of these roles on a daily basis. Parents evening is the perfect example of these two roles â€Å"played† by the same person. This is one of the best opportunities I have as practitioner in building relations with the parents. Why? Because if the parents are in agreement with my methods of practice/teaching, I’ve brought learning home. Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years (Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden, Bell, 2002), found that children’s cognitive attainment benefited when parents were involved in children’s learning activities at home. Again the reformed EYFS(2012) has set out to raise the bar of just how influential parents’ role is in their child’s learning and development. Effective leaders will respond to this by reviewing their setting’s work with families to ensure strong engagement. The above ideas has been the foundation of organizing my first parents evening at my new setting. Although the event took place in September( next one due in June), the time coincide with the new EYFS coming into place and myself starting my new job at University of Warwick Nursery about the same time. Although I am a confident person, the likes of starting a new job, new EYFS coming into place, key children/families( of whom 4 out of 5had English as a second language, with very little or no knowledge of what EYFS is or how the nurseries are operating in UK), made me a bit anxious. I had to find a strategy which allowed me to be efficient, sounded knowledgeable and be professional. Having the liberty from the setting manger to conduct my parents evening, into whatever manner suits me and the families involved, the key for me at that particular time was called ORGANIZED. Before holding meeting with parents, any practitioner would consider what purpose it will serve and what will be the most effective method of achieving your goals. Good communication must have a clear purpose. †¢give information †¢consult †¢generate ideas †¢gather information †¢educate/help Parent and key worker meetings Early years settings tend to organise parent and key worker meetings on a regular basis and in a more structured way. Again, the timing of these meetings will depend on the parents daily routines and commitments, and the staff team will have to be flexible when arranging them. I have tried to be responsive to the needs of all individuals when arranging the timing for meetings. Because of the issue of confidentiality and because for most of the families English is a second language, I decided to have meetings with each family, rather than a group meeting. A little office was made available for the times booked and had a presentation running in the background ( appeals to all learning styles) for extra visual information; the main purpose was it introduce the EYFS, areas of learning, activities(see if any disagreement towards celebrations, messy play,etc) and how can be extended at home. See appendix Again, careful thought needs was given to †¢objectives (why) †¢audience (who) †¢content (what) †¢timing (when) environment (where). From my experience, these meetings offer an opportunity for the practitioner and parents to gather information, share their observations and to consider the implications of these in terms of planning for the childs learning. They are conducted in an atmosphere of mutual respect and practitioners should act as genuine listeners, responding to what they hear from the parent and not allowing discussions to be driven by a pre-set agenda based on what has been observed in the nursery. I am trying to use a business technique called the praise praise sandwich. Start with something positive about the child, ask parents of any weak points/areas for improvement , we discuss around this and get an agreement of how together we can help the child move forward and generally improve. Finally I summarise our agreement, and finish with a reminder of their positive. Although we are gathering lots of written and recorded evidence for the child`s learning, is right to say that in Early Years , 50% of the information is mentally recorded by the key worker; and this extra information I found to be really appreciated by parents/families as a prove of knowing/understanding that particular child. During individual meetings with parents, time is set aside for looking at the implications of observations from home and nursery. Planning together for childrens learning will result in a more holistic approach, an enhanced curriculum and continuity for the children. There are opportunities to look at the childs learning journeys and to talk about appropriate provision and support for the childs developmental stage. Where a pattern of behaviour or personal learning interest has been identified, the key worker and parent are discussing experiences that could be offered at home and in the nursery in the hope that they would engage the child and further extend learning. We also share with the parents information about the Foundation Stage curriculum and about young children as learners. explain how the setting plans and assesses a childs learning within the six areas of learning discuss the importance of the learning process emphasise the importance of child-initiated learning talk about schemas discus appropriate expectations and contexts for learning. It is common sense that practitioners should have confidence in their presentation skills and their knowledge of child development and early learning. When English is a second language Parents evening is also an excellent time for the child’s key person to discuss the child’s level and understanding of English, the use of their home language at nursery and the use of English at home. During this time the key person may have some questions on how the child is progressing at home. These can be important as if the child is using little or no English at the setting it is harder to know their level of development. I believe that good relationships with parents helps to aid our knowledge of the child and so provide them with the best possible care and education. To support inclusion and make each child feel valued, I initiated a little project. In the classroom we have got a board on which we have a data base of common words used in all the languages our children are speaking at home. We asked the parents for any words that they feel the child and key person may need while at nursery. This gives the key person some simple understanding and being more aware if the child is asking for something or trying to explain something. This also helps the key person to build a relationship with the child. It has proven to be a success and now it has been extended to all the classrooms. In the United Kingdom, the Pen Green Centre for Under Fives and their Families is well known for its work in involving families in children’s learning, as well as for parents being supported themselves. Pen Green tries to follow a process: whereby all the important adults in a child’s life give each other feedback on what seems to be centrally important to the child, and how and what they are learning in the home and in the nursery (Whalley and the Pen Green Centre Team, 2001). In this way, children are offered a challenging and stimulating environment in both settings that draws on each party’s understanding and scrutiny. Conclusion I believe that I have used my management skills to the best of my abilities and knowledge and it would only be honest to say that, ideas shared with my community of learners (our students group from college) have been put into practice; parents feedback is encouraging . All of them admitted to recognize their own child`s personality, routines, likes/dislikes from everything I have said about each individua. Maybe next time I should try to manage my time a

Different viewpoints and opinions on education

Different viewpoints and opinions on education Indoctrinational vs. democratic/participatory teaching methods and techniques John Dewey argued that education should use a critical democratic approach to raise student consciousness about values, attitudes and worker responsibilities. He stated that the primary purpose of education in United States was to foster the growth of democratically minded citizens, and Dewey made no distinction in the education of those who would manage the companies and those who would work on the shop floors. Dewey strongly advocated vocational exploration as a means to acquire practical knowledge, apply academic content and examine occupational and societal values. However, he adamantly opposed the use of vocational education as merely trade education as it would overemphasize technical efficiency. If this occurred, and some would argue it has, education would then become an instrument of perpetuating unchanged the existing industrial order of the society, instead of operating as a means of its transformation (Dewey, 1916). Dewey believed that it was educations role to combat soc ial predestination, not contribute to it. In contrast, Charles Prosser and David Snedden advocated an indoctrinational approach for teaching work value and attitudes; students should learn, without question, the ethical standards of dominant society and the professional ethics of the desired professional area (Prosser, 1939). Supporters of this approach believed the primary purpose of public education was the development of human capital for the success of industrial economy. To accomplish this, they argued that scientific management principles, drawn from the industrial sector, were employed in the public school setting, creating a hierarchically structured and production oriented educational system (Spring, 1990). Prossers sixteen theorems of vocational education support this vision of schooling. According to him, vocational educational should replicate the occupational environment (i.e. processes, machinery, tools), emphasize efficiency (e.g. outputs, costs) and teach functioning facts rather than in the mere acquiring of abstract and socially useless knowledge (Prosser Quigley, Vocational education in a democracy, 1949). In the past thirty five years the argument initiated by Dewey, Prosser and Snedden has resurfaced between educational theorists, outside the realm of vocational education, and business leaders concerned about the decline of industrial productivity in industrialized nations. Expanding upon Deweys perspective, these educational theorists have used a socio-political-economic framework to guide their critique. Specifically reproduction theorists have criticized vocational education for transmitting work values and attitudes necessary for a compliant workforce as well as primarily employing indoctrinational pedagogies for work values and attitudes instruction (Bowles Gintis, 1976). Reproduction and critical theorists have argued that the indoctrinational approach is exploitative because it produces attitudes in students that correspond to the type of work in which students will most likely participate upon completion of their formal education (Anyon, 1980); (Giroux, 1983); (Macleod, 1987 ). Another facet of this debate was represented in the report Americas choice: high skills or low wages! which focused on corporate organizational structure and its relationship to worker behaviors (National Center on Education and the Economys Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce, 1990). It stated that about 80% of United States companies utilize a pyramidal mass manufacture model that values reliable and compliant workers who perform their tasks almost robot like. This is in contrast to democratically structured organizations that need workers who are adaptable, resourceful, critical and capable of making decisions. While Dewey and critical theorists are concerned primarily with implementing democracy in the schools and the workplace to create a more just and equitable society, the industrial sociological literature has provided evidence that work organizations that employ democratic processes or participatory management also increase worker productivity (Hall, 1987); (J ain, 1980); (Zuboff, 1983). The Commission suggested that, while there is a trend towards companies implementing more participatory management, vocational education needs to teach democratic skills and utilize primarily democratic strategies so that future workers will be prepared to participate in, and assist in transforming companies into high performance organizations. Ineffective learning The nature of work has changed and our understanding of how people learn has also changed. Both developments call into question the organization, goals and pedagogy of our educational system. What makes these developments so powerful is that our new understanding of both work and learning suggest very similar directions for reform. Strengthening the educational system so that it conforms more to the ways people learn will also directly enhance the ability of that system to prepare students for the type of workplaces that are emerging in factories and offices throughout the industrialized world. The following discussion of effective learning emerges from a powerful knowledge base known as cognitive science. From the perspective of cognitive science this discussion purports to underscore two basic points about learning and teaching. First, school routinely and profoundly violates what we know about how people learn effectively and the conditions under which they apply their knowledge appropriately to new situations. Second, these practices seem to permeate all levels and sectors of education and training in developed countries right from elementary grades to corporate training. Mistaken assumption # 1: The educational enterprise assumes that people predictably transfer learning to new situations As a society, we presume that the ultimate point of schooling is to prepare students for effective and responsible functioning outside of school. Accepting this assumption means that we have to confront what is known as the knowledge transfer problem. Knowledge transfer simply means the appropriate use in a new situation of concepts, skills, knowledge and strategies acquired in another. Historically, lower-skilled workers had a very limited need for transfer. Transfer becomes important when you encounter the unfamiliar and non-routine, and lower skilled workers encountered little that was not familiar and did not have the responsibility for handling the non-routine that they did encounter. Goods and services were limited in number, allowing long production runs of the same thing or service and reducing the number of events that have not been previously encountered. Within this limited product or service range, companies organized the work as specialist work workers had responsibility for a narrow range of activity. Supervisors and managers were expected to handle the non-routine events that did occur within this narrow, repetitive world. That is, responsibility for events that required problem solving, judgment, heuristics, analogues, or other mental activities enhanced by the access to knowledge and skills acquired in other situations was detached from lower-skill jobs and vested in middle-skill managerial jobs. However, technological innovations and changed market conditions ushered by globalization and in its wake increased competition means an increased number of non-routine events. Companies in developed countries are gradually shifting from highly specialized and repetitive jobs at lower skill levels toward teams expected to handle a broader range of activities, and they are also increasingly vesting problem-solving, supervisory responsibilities in these teams. Thus, a broader range of workers is being asked to exercise the mental activities enhanced by access to knowledge and skills acquired in other situations. Extensive research, spanning decades, shows that individuals do not predictably transfer knowledge in any of the three situations where transfer should occur. They do not predictably transfer school knowledge to everyday practice (Pea, 1989); (Lave, 1988). They do not predictably transfer sound everyday practice to school endeavors, even when the former seems clearly relevant to the latter. They do not predictably transfer their learning across school subjects. We focus on the first two transfer problems: from school to nonschool and from nonschool to school. Transferring from school to outside of school: This transfer situation is at the heart of schooling. Usually, the major claim for school-type instruction is its generality and power of transfer to situations beyond classroom (Resnick, 1987). The fundamental question is whether knowledge, skills and strategies acquired in formal education in fact get used appropriately in everyday practice. Students in college physics courses designed for physics majors can solve book problems in Newtonian mechanics by rote application of formulae. However, even after instruction, they revert to naÃÆ' ¯ve pre-Newtonian explanations of common physical situations to which their school learning is relevant (diSessa, 1983). Studies of expert radiologists, electronic troubleshooters and lawyers all reveal a syrprising lack of transfer of theoretical principles, processes or skills learned in school to professional practice (Resnick, 1987). For example, Morris and Rouse found that extensive training in electronics and troubleshooting theories provided little knowledge and fewer skills directly applicable to performing electronic troubleshooting (Morris Rouse, 1985) Transferring from outside of school to school: People learn outside of school all the time. The question then is what people do with what they learn outside of school when they move into school. Does sound, everyday practice get transferred to get used in school learning? How does incorrect learning outside school affect correct learning inside school? Dairy workers, although almost errorless in their use of practical arithmetic at work, performed badly in on arithmetic tests with problems like those encountered in their jobs (Scribner Fahrmeir, 1982). Brazilian street vendor children successfully solved 98% of their marketplace transactions, such as calculating total costs and change. When presented with the same transactions in formal arithmetic word problems that provided some descriptive context, the children correctly solved 74% of the problems. Their success rate dropped to 37% when asked to solve the same types of problems when these were presented as mathematical operations without descriptive context (Carraher, Carraher, Schliemann, 1985). Other studies show that training on one version of a logical problem has little, if any, effect on solving an isomorphic version that is represented differently (Hayes Simon, 1977). Teaching children to use general context-independent cognitive strategies has no clear benefits outside the specific domains in which they are taught (Pressley, Snyder, Cariglia-Bull, 1987) Cognitive experts agree that the conditions for transfer are not fully understood. Even though studies cited in previous paragraphs continue to find no evidence of transfer, others identify conditions under which transfer seems to occur (Holyoak, 1985); (Nisbett, Fong, Lehman, Cheng, 1987); (Lehman, Lempert, Nisbett, 1988); (Singley Anderson, 1989). We know that people routinely apply skills such as reading, writing and arithmetic to new situations with some success. These skills are used most effectively in well understood content domains. For example, readers get more out of their reading when they know something about the domain in which they are reading than when they do not. Nonetheless, skills such as reading do let us enter unfamiliar content areas we do use these skills in new situations, and they do help us. At the same time, we also keep finding lack of transfer. We now know that certain practices in school impede learning. More effective learning may not be sufficient for transfer, but poor initial learning will certainly impede it. Mistaken assumption # 2: Learners are best seen as passive vessels into which knowledge is poured In a typical schoolroom or a corporate training session, the teacher or expert faces the learners in the role of knowledge source. The learner is the passive receiver of wisdom a glass into which water is poured. This instructional arrangement comes out of an implicit assumption about the basic purpose of education: the transmission of societys culture from one generation to the next. The concept of transmission implies a one-way flow from the adult members of the society to the societys young, or, from the expert to the novice (Lave, The culture of acquisition and the practice of understanding: Report No. IRL88-0007, 1988). In fact, schooling is often talked about as transmission of canonical knowledge in other words, of an authoritative, structured body of principles, rules and knowledge. Education as canonical transmission thus becomes the conveying of what experts know to be true, rather than a process of inquiry, discovery and wonder. This view of education leads naturally to the student as the receiver of the word, to a lecture mode of teaching, and to the teacher as the controller of the process. This organization of learning, with the teacher as order-giver and the student as order-taker, fits the traditional organization of work for lower-skilled workers in both civilian workplaces and the military. The workers à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ responsibility was à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ to do what he was told [to do by the management] (Callahan, 1962). Ben Hamper, an auto assembly line worker, uses more colorful language: Working the line at G. M. was like being paid to flunk high school for the rest of your life (Marchese, 1991). The assumption that the teacher is the pourer and the student the receptacle has several unfortunate consequences. Passive learning reduces or removes chances for exploration, discovery and invention: Passive learning means that learners do not interact with problems and content and thus do not get the experiential feedback that is key to learning. Students need chances to engage in choice, judgment, control processes and problem formulation; they need chances to commit mistakes. The saying, experience is the best teacher, is borne out by the research you learn what you do. While not sufficient for effective learning, doing is nonetheless necessary. However, schools usually present what is to be learned as a delineated body of knowledge, with the result that students come to regard the subject being studied mathematics, for example as something received, not discovered and as entity to be ingested, rather than a form of activity, argumentation and social discourse. This organization of learning mirrors the traditional organization of work, especially for lower skilled workers. Under the system of industrial management known as scientific management or the Taylor System, each mans task was worked out by the planning department. Each worker received an instruction card which described in minute detail not only what is to be done, but how it is to be done and the exact time allowed for doing it' (Callahan, 1962). This system was highly prescriptive; it left no room for deviation or innovation. Passive learning places control over learning in the teachers, not the learners, hands: Passive learning creates learners dependent on teachers for guidance and feedback, thus undercutting the development of confidence in their own sense making abilities, their initiative and their cognitive executive skills. The example of Brazilian street vendor children may be recalled at this juncture. The researchers found that when the children tried to work school math problems, they did not check the sensibleness of their answers by relating them back to the initial problem. Although virtually errorless in their street math activities, they came with preposterous results for school math problems (Carraher, Carraher, Schliemann, 1985). In a study of supermarket shoppers use of arithmetic, the researchers assessed the shoppers command of structurally similar school math problems. The shoppers spoke with self-deprecation about not having studied math for a long time. Lave clarifies what is happening here. Individuals experience themselves as both subjects and objects in the world. In the supermarket, for example, they see themselves as controlling their activities, interacting with the setting, generating problems in relation [to] the setting, and controlling problem solving processes. In contrast, school à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ create[s] contexts in which children à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ experience themselves as objects, with no control over problems or choice about problem-solving processes (Lave, Cognition in Practice, 1988) in sum, control in the teachers, not the students hands undercuts students trust in their own sense making abilities. As companies have started shifting decision-making power to the shop floor, managers find that workers conditioned to depending on their supervisors telling them what to do are frightened and lack confidence in their ability to solve problems and make decisions. In addition to its effects on confidence, passive learning also undercuts the development of a particular set of higher order cognitive skills called the cognitive self-management, or executive thinking, skills. These are simply the skills that we use to govern our problem-solving attempts. They include goal setting, strategic planning, checking for accurate plan execution, monitoring our progress and evaluating and revising our plans. We now know that those who function as independent and effective learners are people with these skills. However, as Pea has observed, passive learning is disastrous for developing them. Classroom studies of reading, writing, and math and science instruction show that the executive processes for controlling thinking and learning processes are under the teachers control, not the students. These processes seem to get developed when the learning situation is structured to shift control from the teacher to the student, the teacher gradually removing the support that students need initially as they begin to show the ability to work autonomously (Pea, 1989). Passive learning creates motivational and crowd control problems: Jordan describes a Mexican public health training program designed to improve the practice of Mayan midwives. Her analysis spotlights behaviors that American teachers constantly complain about their students (Jordan, 1987). The teaching is organized in a straight didactic material in a mini-lecture format. When these lectures begin, the midwives shift into what Jordan calls their waiting-it-out behavior: they sit impassively, gaze far away, feet dangling, obviously tuned out. This is behavior that one might also observe in other waiting situations, such as when a bus is late or during sermons in church, (p. 3). We see the same behaviors in American third graders. Hass found that students were deeply engaged in team problem-solving during their drill and practice time, but invested little attention or involvement in the teachers instructional sessions. During three weeks of observation, the children did not adopt any of the specific strategies demonstrated by the teacher during general instruction time (Hass, 1988). As teachers know it so well, motivational problems often end up as crowd control problems, as illustrated by the behaviors of different groups of children at a Metropolitan Museum display of Ice Age art and artifacts. Most of the school groups were moved from one exhibit to the next, pausing before each to hear a guides or teachers lecture. Since the children were bunched in front of an exhibit, they could not all hear the lecture, and even when they could, they lacked understanding of the time frames involved or the archaeological significance of bits of bone. Teachers had not set up the museum visit so that students became involved in what they were going to see. Groups were therefore restless and crowd control became the teachers primary concern. One junior high school class behaved very differently, exhibiting a quiet intensity as they moved through the exhibit gallery. They had packets of worksheets with questions about issues and problems that they were expected to solve at the exhibit. Some questions were factual, but most required inference and thought. The students had to figure out for themselves where and what the evidence would be concerning particular questions (Farnham-Diggory, 1990). Motivational and crowd control problems with students have shown up for decades with lower-skilled workers in the forms of high turnover, absenteeism and, in extreme cases, sabotage. Mistaken assumption # 3: Learning is the strengthening of bonds between stimuli and correct responses Based on his animal experiments, the brilliant psychologist Edward Thorndike developed a new theory of learning. As Cremin observed, the theory presumed that learning was the wedding of a specific response to a specific stimulus through a psychological bond in the neural system. The stimulus [S] then regularly called forth the response [R]. the bond between S and R was stamped in by being continually rewarded; an undesired bond was extinguished through punishment or failure (Cremin, 1961). For the purpose of this research, this psychological theory had three major effects. It led to the breakdown of complex ideas and tasks into components, subtasks and items (stimuli) that could be separately trained. It encouraged repetitive training (stamping in). And it led to a focus on the right answer (successful response) and to the counting of correct responses to items and subtasks, a perspective that ended up in psychometrically elegant tests that were considered the scientific way to measure achievement. The result was fractionation: having to learn disconnected subroutines, items and subskills without an understanding of the larger context into which they fit and which gives them meaning. As Farnham-Diggory notes, fractionated instruction maximizes forgetting, inattention and passivity (Farnham-Diggory, 1990). Since children and adults seem to acquire knowledge from active participation in complex and meaningful environments, school programs could hardly have been better designed to prevent a childs natural learning system from operating (p. 146). The phrase a childs natural learning system goes to the heart of why the usual school programs do not meet their own learning objectives well. Human beings even the small child are quintessentially sense-making, problem-solving animals. The word Why is a hallmark of young childrens talk. As a species, we wonder, we are curious and we want to understand. Pechman talks about the child as the meaning maker. Fractionated and decontextualized instruction fails to mobilize this powerful property of human beings in the service of learning (Pechman, 1990). Mistaken assumption # 4: What matters is getting the right answer Bothe the transmission and the behaviorist views of learning place a premium on getting the right answer. A transmission view stresses the ability of the learner to reproduce the Word; a behaviorist view, the ability of the learner to generate the correct response. The end result is the same: students and teachers focus on the right answer, jeopardizing the development of real understanding. The focus plays out in several ways. An instructional focus on the right answer discourages instruction in problem solving: A right answer focus encourages an emphasis on facts. Facts are important, but by themselves constitute an impoverished understanding of a domain; a fact-focus does not help students abilities to think about the domain in different ways. Cognitive analyses of a range of jobs show that being able to generate different solutions to problems that are formally the same is a hallmark of expert performance (Scribner, Head and hand: An action approach to thinking, 1988).Employers and college educators both complain that American high school graduates are limited in their thinking and problem-solving abilities, deficiencies that stem partly from an educational emphasis on facts and right answers. Students resort to veneers of accomplishment: Students respond to a focus on right answers by learning to test right within the school system. They figure out what answers the teacher or the test seems to want, but often at the cost of real learning. These surface achievements have been called the veneer of accomplishment (Lave, Smith, Butler, Problem solving as an everyday practice, 1988). Also, Jordans analysis of a Mayan midwives training program illuminates basic truths about the learning and testing of American students (Jordan, 1987). She found that midwives who had been through the training course saw official health care system as powerful, in that it commanded resources and authority. They came to distinguish good from not good things to say. Specifically, they learned new ways of legitimizing themselves, new ways of presenting themselves as being in league with this powerful system, but with little impact on their daily practice. Although they could converse appropriately with supervisory medical personnel, their new knowledge was not incorporated into their behavioral repertoire. It was verbally, but not behaviorally fixed. Jordan notes that the trainers evaluated their program by asking the midwives to reproduce definitions, lists and abstract concepts. She observes that if these tests measure anything at all, they measure changes in linguistic repertoire and changes in discourse skills [not changes in behavior] (pp. 10-12) The same behaviors show up with Hasss American third graders. He noticed that in mathematics lessons the students got much practice in problem-solving methods that they had brought into the classroom with them methods that were not being taught and were not supposed to be used. The children used these methods to produce right answers, which the teacher took as evidence of their having grasped the formal procedures that she was teaching them. In fact, all that had happened was the appearance of learning. Teachers do not get behind the answers: We end up with appearances of learning because, in their search for right answers, teachers often fail to check behind the answers to insure that students really grasp the principles that they want the students to master. In typical American classrooms the time devoted to a lesson on a particular topic makes it hard to bring to the surface, let along change, the ideas and assumptions that individuals bring to the lesson. Traditional curriculum design is usually based on a conceptual analysis of the subject matter that ignores what is already in the learners head, with the result that students make mistakes that arise from undetected ideas that they brought to the lesson. Or they can play back memorized canonical knowledge and conceptions but return to their own ideas when confronted with unfamiliar questions or non-routine problems. As noted earlier,, students in college physics courses designed for physics majors can solve book problems in Newtonian mechanics by rote application of formulas, but even after instruction revert to naÃÆ' ¯ve pre-Newtonian explanations of common physical situations (Raizen, 1989). Teachers do not focus on how to use student mistakes to help them learn: In their search for right answers, teachers tend to regard student errors as failures rather than as opportunities to strengthen students understanding. American teachers placed little emphasis on the constructive use of errors as a teaching technique, a practice that the researchers attribute to the strong influence of behaviorism in American education. Behaviorism requires teaching conditions that help learners make only correct responses that can be reinforced through praise. Mistaken assumption # 5: To insure their transfer to new situations, skills and knowledge should be acquired independently of their contexts of use This idea is often talked about as decontextualized learning, which simply means learning out of context or meaning. The rationale for decontextualised learning goes back to the presumed conditions for the transfer of learning. As Lave observes, extracting knowledge from the particulars of experience was thought to make that knowledge available for general application in all situations (Lave, Cognition in Practice, 1988). Almost seventy five years ago, John and Evelyn Dewey wrote about the learning costs of decontextualized education. A statement, even of facts, does not reveal the value of the fact, or the sense of its truth of the fact that it is a fact. Where children are fed only on the book knowledge, one fact is as good as another; they have no standards of judgment or belief. Take the child studying weights and measures; he reads in his textbook that eight quarts make a peck, but when he does examples he is apt, as every schoolteacher knows, to substitute four for eight. Evidently the statement as he read it in the book did not stand for anything that goes on outside the book, so it is a matter of accident what figure lodges in his brain, or whether any does. But the grocers boy who has measured out pecks with a quart measure knows. He has made pecks; he would laugh at anybody who suggested that four quarts made a peck. What is the difference in these two cases? The schoolboy has a result without the activity of which it is the result. To the grocers boy the statement has value and truth, for it is the obv ious result of an experience it is a fact. Thus we see that it is a mistake to suppose that practical activities have only or even mainly a utilitarian value in the schoolroom. They are necessary if the pupil is to understand the facts which the teacher wishes him to learn; if his knowledge is to be real, not verbal; if his education is to furnish standards of judgment and comparison. (Dewey Dewey, Schools of tomorrow, 1915) Get over the traditional distinctions between head and hand The indictment of traditionally organized learning was coming out of a powerful research base, cognitive science. At the heart of this research was the presumption that intelligence and expertise are built out of interaction with the environment, not in isolation from it. It thus challenged the traditionally held distinctions between: Head and hand Academic and vocational education Knowing and doing Abstract and applied Education and training School-based and work-based learning Recent EU policy indicates a reassessment both of the relationship between work and education and the role of work experience in academic and vocational programs, on the basis that globalization is generating the need for new learning relationships between education and work which will support lifelong learning (European Commission, 1995). Thus, in the case of work experience in both general and vocational education, it is now envisaged that it could fulfill an important new role, providing an opportunity for those young people in full-time education and training to develop their understanding about changes in the world of work, to enhance their key skills and to make closer links between their formal programs of study and the world of work (Green, Leney, Wolf, 1999). However, although there has been